Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast)

Florentin Acho; Lessoy Zoué; Rose-Monde Megnanou; Gisèle Koua; Sébastien Niamké

doi:doi:10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12

| Peer-Reviewed

Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast)

Florentin Acho, Lessoy Zoué, Rose-Monde Megnanou, Gisèle Koua, Sébastien Niamké

Published in Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences (Volume 2, Issue 6)

Received: 19 October 2014 Accepted: 4 November 2014 Published: 10 November 2014

Views: Downloads:

Download PDF

Share This Article

Twitter
Linked In
Facebook

Abstract

African leafy vegetables (ALVs) are considered as available and affordable sources of bioactive constituents such as minerals and vitamins both for urban and rural populations. Five leafy vegetable species (Basella alba, Colocasia esculenta, Corchorus olitorius, Solanum melongena and Talinum triangulare) that are widely consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) were roasted in order to evaluate the effect of this non conventional processing method on their nutritive value and antioxidant properties. This study showed that dry heat application (180-200°C) during long time (higher than 2 min) caused negative impact by reduction of nutrients contents but positive impact with anti-nutrients (oxalates and phytates) losses. The registered losses at 2 min of roasting were as follow: ash (0.93 - 4.19 %), proteins (1.78 - 16.53%), vitamin C (50 – 86.36%), carotenoids (54.18 - 86.90%), oxalates (4.39 – 74.61%) and phytates (0.38 – 76.08%). Contrary to nutrients losses, roasting processing of the selected leafy vegetables highlighted a significant increase (1.12 to 26.57%) of polyphenols contents coupled with increasing of antioxidant activity. Furthermore, after 2 min of roasting processing the residual contents of minerals were: calcium (302.60 – 702.07 mg/100g), magnesium (121.39 – 786.11 mg/100g), potassium (1740.26 – 4199.23 mg/100g), iron (56.80 – 94.82 mg/100g) and zinc (12.53 – 47.34 mg/100g). All these results suggest that roasting processing (less than 2 min at 200°C) may be used as valuable cooking method of leafy vegetables in order to minimize nutrients losses and to contribute efficiently to the food security of Ivorian population.

Published in	Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences (Volume 2, Issue 6)
DOI	10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12
Page(s)	250-257
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2014. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Antioxidant Properties, Roasting Processing, Leafy Vegetables, Nutritive Value

References

[1]	WHO (2003). World Health Organization: diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Ex -pert Consultation, WHO Technical Report Series 916, Geneva.
[2]	Okeno, J.A., Chebet, D.K. and Mathenge, P.W. (2003). Status of indigenous vegetables in Kenya. Acta Hort., 621: 95-100.
[3]	Nordeide, M.B., Hatloy, A., Folling, M., Lied, E. and Oshaug A. (1996). Nutrient composition and nutritional importance of green leaves and wild food resources in an agricultural district, Koutiala, in Southern Mali. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr., 45: 455-468.
[4]	Mulokozi, G., Hedren, E. and Svanberg U. (2004). In vitro accessibility and intake of β-carotene from cooked green leafy vegetables and their estimated contribution to vitamin A requirements. Plant Food Hum. Nutr., 59: 1-9.
[5]	Orech, F.O., Akenga, T., Ochora J, Friis, H. and Aagaard-Hansen J. (2005). Potential toxicity of some traditional leafy vegetables consumed in Nyang’oma Division, Western Kenya. AJFAND. Available from: http://www.ajfand.net/index.htm .
[6]	Chweya J.A. (1985). Identification and nutritional importance of indigenous green leafy vegetables in Kenya. Acta Hort., 153:99-108.
[7]	Maziya-Dixon, B., Akinyele, I.O., Oguntona, E.B., Nokoe, S., Sanusi, R.A. and Harris E. (2004). Nigeria Food Consumption and Nutrition Survey. IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria.
[8]	PROTA (2004). Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale. Volume 2: Légumes. Grubben G.J.H. et Denton O.A. (eds). Fondation PROTA / Backhuys Publishers / CTA, Wageningen. 737 p.
[9]	Fondio, L., Kouamé, C., N’zi, J.C., Mahyao, A., Agbo, E. and Djidji A.H. (2007). Survey of indigenous leafy vegetable in the urban and peri-urban areas of Côte d’Ivoire. Acta Hort., 752: 287-289.
[10]	Soro, L.C., Atchibri, L.O., Kouadio, K.K. and Kouamé, C. (2012). Evaluation de la composition nutritionnelle des légumes-feuilles. J. Appl. Biosci., 51:3567– 3573.
[11]	Acho, F.C., Zoué, L.T., Akpa, E.E., Yapo, V.G.. and Niamké L.S. (2014). Leafy vegetables consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire: a source of high value nutrients. J. Anim. Plant Sci., 20: 3159-3170.
[12]	Canet W. (1989). Quality and stability of frozen vegetables. In S. Thorne (Ed.). Developments in food preservation (Vol. 5). New York: Elsevier Science Publishing Inc.
[13]	Prestamo, G.., Fuster, C. and Risueno, M.C. (1998). Effects of blanching and freezing on the structure of carrots cells and their implications for food processing. J.Sci. Food Agric., 77: 223–229.
[14]	Murcia, M.A., Lopez-Ayerra, B. and Garcia-Carmona F. (1999). Effect of processing methods and different blanching times on broccoli: proximate composition and fatty acids. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft Technol. 32:238–243.
[15]	Oboh, G. (2005). Effect of blanching on the antioxidant properties of some tropical green leafy vegetables. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft Technol. 38:513–517.
[16]	Chinma, C.E., Igyor, M.A. (2007). Micro-nutriments and anti-nutritional content of select tropical vegetables grown in South-East, Nigeria. Nig. Food J., 25:111-115.
[17]	AOAC (1990). Official methods of analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemists Ed., Washington DC. 684 p.
[18]	FAO (2002). Food energy-methods of analysis and conversion factors. FAO Ed, Rome. 97 p.
[19]	CEAEQ (2013). Mineral determination. Argon plasma spectrometry method. MA 200 – Met 1.2, Rev 4. Quebec, 24 p.
[20]	Day, R.A., Underwood, A.L. (1986). Quantitative analysis. 5th ed. Prentice Hall. 701 p.
[21]	Latta, M. and Eskin, M. (1980). A simple method for phytate determination. J. Agric. Food Chem. 28:1313-1315.
[22]	Pongracz, G.., Weiser, H. and Matzinger, D. (1971). Tocopherols- Antioxydant. Fat Sci. Technol. 97:90-104.
[23]	Rodriguez-Amaya, D.B. (2001). A guide to carotenoids analysis in foods. ILSI Press, Washington DC. 64 p.
[24]	Singleton, V.L., Orthofer, R. and Lamuela-Raventos, R.M. (1999). Analysis of total phenols and other oxydant substrates and antioxydants by means of Folin-ciocalteu reagent. Methods Enzymol. 299:152-178.
[25]	Choi, C.W., Kim, S.C., Hwang S.S., Choi B.K., Ahn H.J., Lee M.Z., Park S.H. and Kim S.K. (2002). Antioxydant activity and free radical scavenging capacity between Korean medicinal plant and flavonoids by assay guided comparison. Plant Sci. 163:1161-1168.
[26]	Acho F.C., Zoue, L.T., Koua, G.Y., Kra, A.S. and Niamke L.S. (2014). Effect of cooking on nutritive and antioxidant properties of leafy vegetables consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire. Int. J. Res. Biosci. 3:75-87.
[27]	Lund, D.B. (1997). Effects of heat processing on nutrients. In: Nutritional Evaluation of Food Processing, (R. Harries and E. Karmas, eds). The AVI Publishing Co. Inc Westport. p. 205 – 203.
[28]	Gibson, R.S., Perlas, L. and Hotz, C. (2006). Improving the bioavailability of nutrients in plant foods at the household level. Proceedings Nutr. Soc., 65:160–168.
[29]	Svanberg, S.M., Nyman, E.M., Andersson, L. and Nilsson, R. (1997). Effects of boiling and storage on dietary fiber and digestible carbohydrates in various cultivars of carrots. J. Sci. Food Agric., 73:245–254.
[30]	Ishida, H., Suzuno, H., Sugiyama, N., Innami, S., Todokoro T. and Maekawa A. (2000). Nutritional evaluation of chemical component of leaves stalks and stems of sweet potatoes (Ipomea batatas). Food Chem., 68:359-367.
[31]	Ejoh, A.R., Tchouanguep, M.F. and Fokou, E. (1996). Nutrient composition of the leaves and flowers of Colocasia esculenta and the fruits of Solanum melongena. Plant Food Hum. Nutr., 49: 107-112.
[32]	Sobowale, S.S., Olatidoye, O.P., Olorode O.O. and Akinlotan J.V. (2011). Nutritional potentials and chemical value of some tropical leafy vegetables consumed in south west Nigeria J. Sci. Multidisciplinary Res., 3:55-65.
[33]	Sandberg, A.S. (2002). Bioavailability of minerals in legumes. Brit. J. Nutr., 88:281-285.
[34]	FAO (2004). Human vitamin and mineral requirements. FAO Ed. 361p.
[35]	Turan, M., Kordali, S., Zengin, H., Dursun, A. and Sezen Y. (2003). Macro and micro-mineral content of some wild edible leaves consumed in Eastern Anatolia. Plant Soil Sci. 53: 129-137.
[36]	Chaturvedi, V.C., Shrivastava, R. and Upreti, R.K. (2004). Viral infections and trace elements: A complex trace element. Curr. Sci., 87:1536-1554.
[37]	Trowbridge, F. and Martorell, M. (2002). Forging effective strategies to combat iron deficiency. J. Nutri. 85:875-880.
[38]	Hassan, L.G.., Umar, K.J. and Umar, Z. (2007). Anti-nutritive factors in Tribulus terrestris (Linn) leaves and predicted calcium and zinc bioavailability. J. Trop. Biosci. 7:33-36.
[39]	Speek, A.J., Temalilwa, G.R. and Schrijver J. (1986). Determination of β-carotene content and vitamin A activity of vegetables by HPLC. Food Chem. 19:65-74.
[40]	Nagy, S. and Smooth J.M. (1977). Temperature and storage effects on percent retention and percent U.S. recommended dietary allowances of vitamin C in canned single-strength orange juice. J. Agric. Food Chem. 25:135-138.
[41]	Oboh, G.. and Rocha, J.B. (2007). Polyphenols in red pepper and their protective effect on some pro-oxidants induced lipid peroxidation in brain and liver. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 225: 239-247.
[42]	Rice-Evans, C. and Miller, N.J. (1995). Antioxidants: the case for fruit and vegetables in the diet. Brit. Food J. 97:35-40.
[43]	Amic, D., Davidovic-Amic, D., Beslo, D. and Trinajstic N. (2003). Structure-radical scavenging activity relationship of flavonoids. Croatia Chem. Acta. 76:55-61.

Cite This Article

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Florentin Acho, Lessoy Zoué, Rose-Monde Megnanou, Gisèle Koua, Sébastien Niamké. (2014). Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast). Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 2(6), 250-257. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Florentin Acho; Lessoy Zoué; Rose-Monde Megnanou; Gisèle Koua; Sébastien Niamké. Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast). J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2014, 2(6), 250-257. doi: 10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Florentin Acho, Lessoy Zoué, Rose-Monde Megnanou, Gisèle Koua, Sébastien Niamké. Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast). J Food Nutr Sci. 2014;2(6):250-257. doi: 10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12,
  author = {Florentin Acho and Lessoy Zoué and Rose-Monde Megnanou and Gisèle Koua and Sébastien Niamké},
  title = {Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast)},
  journal = {Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences},
  volume = {2},
  number = {6},
  pages = {250-257},
  doi = {10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.jfns.20140206.12},
  abstract = {African leafy vegetables (ALVs) are considered as available and affordable sources of bioactive constituents such as minerals and vitamins both for urban and rural populations. Five leafy vegetable species (Basella alba, Colocasia esculenta, Corchorus olitorius, Solanum melongena and Talinum triangulare) that are widely consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) were roasted in order to evaluate the effect of this non conventional processing method on their nutritive value and antioxidant properties. This study showed that dry heat application (180-200°C) during long time (higher than 2 min) caused negative impact by reduction of nutrients contents but positive impact with anti-nutrients (oxalates and phytates) losses. The registered losses at 2 min of roasting were as follow: ash (0.93 - 4.19 %), proteins (1.78 - 16.53%), vitamin C (50 – 86.36%), carotenoids (54.18 - 86.90%), oxalates (4.39 – 74.61%) and phytates (0.38 – 76.08%). Contrary to nutrients losses, roasting processing of the selected leafy vegetables highlighted a significant increase (1.12 to 26.57%) of polyphenols contents coupled with increasing of antioxidant activity. Furthermore, after 2 min of roasting processing the residual contents of minerals were: calcium (302.60 – 702.07 mg/100g), magnesium (121.39 – 786.11 mg/100g), potassium (1740.26 – 4199.23 mg/100g), iron (56.80 – 94.82 mg/100g) and zinc (12.53 – 47.34 mg/100g). All these results suggest that roasting processing (less than 2 min at 200°C) may be used as valuable cooking method of leafy vegetables in order to minimize nutrients losses and to contribute efficiently to the food security of Ivorian population.},
 year = {2014}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast)
AU  - Florentin Acho
AU  - Lessoy Zoué
AU  - Rose-Monde Megnanou
AU  - Gisèle Koua
AU  - Sébastien Niamké
Y1  - 2014/11/10
PY  - 2014
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12
T2  - Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences
JF  - Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences
JO  - Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences
SP  - 250
EP  - 257
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-7293
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12
AB  - African leafy vegetables (ALVs) are considered as available and affordable sources of bioactive constituents such as minerals and vitamins both for urban and rural populations. Five leafy vegetable species (Basella alba, Colocasia esculenta, Corchorus olitorius, Solanum melongena and Talinum triangulare) that are widely consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) were roasted in order to evaluate the effect of this non conventional processing method on their nutritive value and antioxidant properties. This study showed that dry heat application (180-200°C) during long time (higher than 2 min) caused negative impact by reduction of nutrients contents but positive impact with anti-nutrients (oxalates and phytates) losses. The registered losses at 2 min of roasting were as follow: ash (0.93 - 4.19 %), proteins (1.78 - 16.53%), vitamin C (50 – 86.36%), carotenoids (54.18 - 86.90%), oxalates (4.39 – 74.61%) and phytates (0.38 – 76.08%). Contrary to nutrients losses, roasting processing of the selected leafy vegetables highlighted a significant increase (1.12 to 26.57%) of polyphenols contents coupled with increasing of antioxidant activity. Furthermore, after 2 min of roasting processing the residual contents of minerals were: calcium (302.60 – 702.07 mg/100g), magnesium (121.39 – 786.11 mg/100g), potassium (1740.26 – 4199.23 mg/100g), iron (56.80 – 94.82 mg/100g) and zinc (12.53 – 47.34 mg/100g). All these results suggest that roasting processing (less than 2 min at 200°C) may be used as valuable cooking method of leafy vegetables in order to minimize nutrients losses and to contribute efficiently to the food security of Ivorian population.
VL  - 2
IS  - 6
ER  -

Copy | Download

Author Information

Florentin Acho

Biotechnology Laboratory, Biosciences Faculty, Félix Houphouet-Boigny University, PO Box 582, Abidjan 22, Ivory Coast
Lessoy Zoué

Biotechnology Laboratory, Biosciences Faculty, Félix Houphouet-Boigny University, PO Box 582, Abidjan 22, Ivory Coast
Rose-Monde Megnanou

Biotechnology Laboratory, Biosciences Faculty, Félix Houphouet-Boigny University, PO Box 582, Abidjan 22, Ivory Coast
Gisèle Koua

Biotechnology Laboratory, Biosciences Faculty, Félix Houphouet-Boigny University, PO Box 582, Abidjan 22, Ivory Coast
Sébastien Niamké

Biotechnology Laboratory, Biosciences Faculty, Félix Houphouet-Boigny University, PO Box 582, Abidjan 22, Ivory Coast

Download PDF

Sections

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Florentin Acho, Lessoy Zoué, Rose-Monde Megnanou, Gisèle Koua, Sébastien Niamké. (2014). Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast). Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 2(6), 250-257. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Florentin Acho; Lessoy Zoué; Rose-Monde Megnanou; Gisèle Koua; Sébastien Niamké. Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast). J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2014, 2(6), 250-257. doi: 10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Florentin Acho, Lessoy Zoué, Rose-Monde Megnanou, Gisèle Koua, Sébastien Niamké. Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast). J Food Nutr Sci. 2014;2(6):250-257. doi: 10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12,
  author = {Florentin Acho and Lessoy Zoué and Rose-Monde Megnanou and Gisèle Koua and Sébastien Niamké},
  title = {Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast)},
  journal = {Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences},
  volume = {2},
  number = {6},
  pages = {250-257},
  doi = {10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.jfns.20140206.12},
  abstract = {African leafy vegetables (ALVs) are considered as available and affordable sources of bioactive constituents such as minerals and vitamins both for urban and rural populations. Five leafy vegetable species (Basella alba, Colocasia esculenta, Corchorus olitorius, Solanum melongena and Talinum triangulare) that are widely consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) were roasted in order to evaluate the effect of this non conventional processing method on their nutritive value and antioxidant properties. This study showed that dry heat application (180-200°C) during long time (higher than 2 min) caused negative impact by reduction of nutrients contents but positive impact with anti-nutrients (oxalates and phytates) losses. The registered losses at 2 min of roasting were as follow: ash (0.93 - 4.19 %), proteins (1.78 - 16.53%), vitamin C (50 – 86.36%), carotenoids (54.18 - 86.90%), oxalates (4.39 – 74.61%) and phytates (0.38 – 76.08%). Contrary to nutrients losses, roasting processing of the selected leafy vegetables highlighted a significant increase (1.12 to 26.57%) of polyphenols contents coupled with increasing of antioxidant activity. Furthermore, after 2 min of roasting processing the residual contents of minerals were: calcium (302.60 – 702.07 mg/100g), magnesium (121.39 – 786.11 mg/100g), potassium (1740.26 – 4199.23 mg/100g), iron (56.80 – 94.82 mg/100g) and zinc (12.53 – 47.34 mg/100g). All these results suggest that roasting processing (less than 2 min at 200°C) may be used as valuable cooking method of leafy vegetables in order to minimize nutrients losses and to contribute efficiently to the food security of Ivorian population.},
 year = {2014}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Impact of Roasting Processing on Nutritive and Antioxidant Properties of Leafy Vegetables Consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast)
AU  - Florentin Acho
AU  - Lessoy Zoué
AU  - Rose-Monde Megnanou
AU  - Gisèle Koua
AU  - Sébastien Niamké
Y1  - 2014/11/10
PY  - 2014
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12
T2  - Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences
JF  - Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences
JO  - Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences
SP  - 250
EP  - 257
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-7293
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jfns.20140206.12
AB  - African leafy vegetables (ALVs) are considered as available and affordable sources of bioactive constituents such as minerals and vitamins both for urban and rural populations. Five leafy vegetable species (Basella alba, Colocasia esculenta, Corchorus olitorius, Solanum melongena and Talinum triangulare) that are widely consumed in Southern Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) were roasted in order to evaluate the effect of this non conventional processing method on their nutritive value and antioxidant properties. This study showed that dry heat application (180-200°C) during long time (higher than 2 min) caused negative impact by reduction of nutrients contents but positive impact with anti-nutrients (oxalates and phytates) losses. The registered losses at 2 min of roasting were as follow: ash (0.93 - 4.19 %), proteins (1.78 - 16.53%), vitamin C (50 – 86.36%), carotenoids (54.18 - 86.90%), oxalates (4.39 – 74.61%) and phytates (0.38 – 76.08%). Contrary to nutrients losses, roasting processing of the selected leafy vegetables highlighted a significant increase (1.12 to 26.57%) of polyphenols contents coupled with increasing of antioxidant activity. Furthermore, after 2 min of roasting processing the residual contents of minerals were: calcium (302.60 – 702.07 mg/100g), magnesium (121.39 – 786.11 mg/100g), potassium (1740.26 – 4199.23 mg/100g), iron (56.80 – 94.82 mg/100g) and zinc (12.53 – 47.34 mg/100g). All these results suggest that roasting processing (less than 2 min at 200°C) may be used as valuable cooking method of leafy vegetables in order to minimize nutrients losses and to contribute efficiently to the food security of Ivorian population.
VL  - 2
IS  - 6
ER  -

Copy | Download